Available evidence across various adaptation options
In order to advance the analysis of adaptation, it is useful to consider the various current and recommended adaptation options in the fisheries and aquaculture sector, and collate information on their costs and benefits. To do this, it is necessary to have a typology of adaptation options. Several generic typologies have been developed (in the third and fourth assessment reports of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [IPCC]) as well in other literature. These often include the categorization of options by type, for example:
- Technical options. These primarily include technical or engineered design, but can include green and ecosystem-based adaptation.
- Non-technical options, including:
- institutional and capacity building;
- information, research and behavioural change;
- non-technical options or measures;
- financial and market-based options (including insurance);
- policy and legislative.
They also include typologies that split adaptation by approach, for example, options that:
- reduce risks;
- reduce exposure;
- reduce vulnerability;
- spread risks;
- live with the risks.
Specific typologies have also emerged for adaptation in the fisheries sector. The OECD (2010) distinguished three fundamental strategies to reduce the actual impacts of climate change on fisheries: (i) promoting resilience in order to reduce system sensitivities; (ii) increasing adaptation capacity and effectiveness of adaptation responses; and (iii) improving the adaptation-planning processes.
Poulain, Himes-Cornell and Shelton (2018) used a further categorization as part of a suggested FAO fisheries and aquaculture adaptation toolbox (Tables 1 and 2), which split adaptation into three non-mutually exclusive areas as follows:
- Institutional adaptation: Interventions, mainly on the part of public bodies, that address legal, policy, management and institutional issues including public investments and incentives; they include the planning, development and management of fisheries and aquaculture in a manner that addresses the dynamic nature of natural systems and societal needs in the face of climate change, following the principles of the ecosystem approach to fisheries (EAF) or the ecosystem approach to aquaculture (EAA).
- Livelihood adaptation: Interventions that include a mix of public and private activities, within or among sectors, most commonly through diversification strategies within or outside the sector to reduce vulnerability.
- Risk reduction and management for resilience: Interventions that include a mix of public and private activities to promote early warning and information systems, improve risk reduction (prevention and preparedness) strategies and enhance response to shocks.
The three categories have been used as the framing for this publication. Tables 1 and 2 provide selected examples of adaptations.
LIVELIHOODS
Within sector
Diversification of markets/fish products, access high-value markets, support diversification of citizens’ demands and preferences
Improvement or change in post-harvest techniques/practices and storage
Improvement of product quality: eco-labelling, reduction of post-harvest losses, value addition
Flexibility to enable seasonal migration (e.g. following stock migration)
Diversification of patterns of fishing activities with respect to the species fished, location of fishing grounds and gear used to enable greater flexibility
Private investment in adapting fishing operations, and private research and development and investments in technologies, e.g. to predict migration routes and availability of commercial fish stocks
Adaptation-oriented microfinance
Between sectors
Livelihood diversification (e.g. switching among rice farming, tree crop farming and fishing in response to seasonal and inter-annual variations in fish availability)
Exit strategies for fishers to leave fishing
RISK REDUCTION AND RESILIENCE RESPONSE
Risk pooling and transfer
Risk insurance
Personal savings
Social protection and safety nets
Improvement in financial security
Early warning
Extreme weather and flow forecasting
Early warning communication and response systems (e.g. food safety, approaching storms)
Monitoring of climate change trends, threats and opportunities (e.g. monitoring of new and more abundant species)
Risk reduction
Risk assessment to identify risk points
Safety at sea and vessel stability
Reinforced barriers to provide a natural first line of protection from storm surges and flooding
Climate-resilient infrastructure (e.g. protecting harbours and landing sites)
Addressing underlying poverty and food insecurity problems
Preparedness and response
Building back better and post-disaster recovery
Rehabilitation of ecosystems
Table 2
Types and selected examples of adaptation tools in aquaculture
| INSTITUTIONS | SPATIAL SCALE |
| Public policies | |
| Mainstreaming of aquaculture into national and regional adaptation and development plans | National/regional |
| More effective sharing of and access to water and coastal space | National/watershed |
| Investments in R&D on aquaculture adaptation technologies; new species, breeding for species tolerant to specific, or a combination of, stressors (disease, temperature, salinity, acidification, etc.) | National, regional, international |
| Investments to facilitate the movement and marketing of farm products and supply inputs | National, regional, international |
| Appropriate incentives for sustainable and resilient aquaculture, including taxes and subsidies | National, international, |
| Attention to poverty and food insecurity within aquaculture systems | |
| Legal frameworks | |
| Property rights, land tenure and access to water | National |
| Standards and certification for production and for resistant facilities | National |
| Institutional frameworks | |
| Strengthening cross-sectoral and inter-institutional cooperation and coordination | Zone/national/regional |
| Mainstreaming of adaptation in food safety assurance and control | National |
| Management and planning | |
| Climate change mainstreamed into integrated coastal zone management | National/watershed/regional |
| Community based adaptation | Site and community levels |
| Aquatic protected areas (marine and freshwater) and/or green infrastructure (see ecosystem approach [EAA] to aquaculture guidelines)1 | National/regional |
| Mainstreaming of climate change into aquaculture area management under the EAA | Zone/watershed/national |
| Better management practices including adaptation and mitigation, i.e. better feed and feed management, water quality maintenance, use of higher-quality seed | Site level/zone/management area |
| Mainstreaming of climate change into spatial planning and management for risk-based zoning and siting | Site level/zone/management area |
| Integration of climate change in carrying capacity considerations (production, environmental and social) | Site level/zone/management area |
| LIVELIHOODS RESPONSE | |
| Within sector | |
| Development and promotion of new, more-resilient farming systems and technologies | Site level/national |
| Genetic diversification and protection of biodiversity | National |
| Integration of climate change in microfinance | National |
| Aquaculture diversification | All |
| More resistant strains | Site level |
| More resistant and/or resilient hatcheries and hatchery-produced seed | Zone/national |
| Value addition | National, regional, international |
| Better market access; new markets for new species and products | Zone, national regional |
| Shift to non-carnivore species | Site level |
| Fishmeal and fish oil replacement | Site level/national |
| Empowering farmers and women’s organizations | Management area/national |
| Integrated farming systems and circular economy | Site level/management area |
| Between sectors | |
| Diversification of livelihoods | Site level/national |
| RISK REDUCTION AND RESILIENCE RESPONSE | |
| Risk pooling and transfer | |
| Social safety nets | National |
| Social protection | National |
| Aquaculture insurance | National |
| Early warning | |
| Integrated monitoring (relevant aquaculture area), information analysis, communication and early warning | Farm, watershed, zone |
| Development of national and local vulnerability maps and raising awareness of risks | Subnational/national |
| Scientific and local knowledge synthesized; logistics to disseminate information | All |
| A national risk communication system that provides reliable early warning to hazards | National |
| Meteorological infrastructure and system that can effectively support crop and farm assets insurance (particularly weather- indexed or parametric insurance) | National |
| Risk reduction | |
| Stronger farming structures (e.g. net pens) and more-resilient designs (e.g. deeper ponds) | Site level/national |
| Enabling adaptive movement between mariculture and inland aquaculture (recirculation aquaculture systems, aquaponics) | Site level/national |
| Better management and biosecurity frameworks | Site level/zone/farm clusters |
| Preparedness and response | |
| Contingency for emergency management, early harvest and/or relocation | National |
| Rehabilitation and building back better plans | National/international |
| Relief programmes, such as work-for-food and “work in reconstruction and rehabilitation projects”, that offer temporary jobs for famers and farm workers | International/national |
| Emergency assistance to avoid additional damage and loss from climate-related disasters – could include fish feed to avoid massive mortality of stocks | National |
1 FA0, 2010.